51. Barker, Eileen. "Living the Divine Principle: Inside the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church in Britain." Archives des Sciences Sociales des Religions 45, 1978: 75-93.

Argues that neither brainwashing nor psychological deficit is necessary to account for UC membership; indeed, it "makes abundant sense" to join, given certain assumptions and predispositions.

52. ---. "Who'd Be a Moonie? A Comparative Study of Those Who Join the Unification Church in Britain." In The Social Impact of New Religious Movements edited by Bryan Wilson. New York: Rose of Sharon Press, 1981b: 59-96.

A demographic survey of members of the Unification Church at the end of the seventies. They tended to be young, well-to-do adults, children of professionals or managers, apparently socialized to a tradition of duty and religion, but "seekers" for new forms. They seem to have encountered disappointment relatively late in life which left them feeling lonely and insecure and looking for leaders.

53. ---. "From Sects to Society: A Methodological Programme." In New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society edited by Eileen Barker. New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1982c: 3-15.

The heuristic value of NRMs is that by their distinct boundedness they clarify the situations to which they present alternatives. The comparative approach is important, to avoid over-facile generalization. Barker suggests observing not only those aspects of society which NRMs want to change but those aspects of the NRMs which their societies heed. For instance the Moonies are blamed in America for not paying taxes and brainwashing; in Britain for breaking up families; in France and Denmark for their politics; in Germany for their use of social security and mental health facilities; in Norway for their theology. In Finland and Holland they are ignored. In some instances, groups at the boundary are more threatening than those well beyond it; the bizarre is not necessarily the most distasteful. Comparison enables determination of the relative importance of different factors in, e.g., recruitment. Classification schemes based on the degree of commitment demanded are vague; some movements (such as Scientology, Rajneeshism, Divine Light Mission) do not neatly fit into either the religious or the client type.

54. ---. "New Religious Movements: Yet Another Great Awakening?" In The Sacred in a Secular Age: Toward Revision of the Scientific Study of Religion edited by P.E. Hammond. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1985b.

Any generalization about the plethora of new religious movements (an estimated 3,000 of them in the West) is doubtful because of their enormous diversity and lability. There is little or no reliable statistical information available. What is new is generally the structure of their beliefs and practices, which [like all innovations] selectively synthesize tradition. Classification is similarly difficult for the same reasons and for the depressing variety of research methods and tools employed. Control groups have almost never been used, so it is impossible to state for certain that any particular attribute is peculiar to a given group, and a great deal of historical and cross-cultural comparison remains to be done. Explanations are similarly diverse, including response to secularization, to social moral relativism [part of secularization, I'd have thought]: some see the groups as combining sacred goals and secular means. Anthony and Robbins's (1981b, e.g.; see item 19) invocation of "American civil religion" does nothing to account for the similar success of these movements in other places. There are those who argue that secular society does not [and cannot] fulfill religious needs, some say that they provide nothing but the means to achieve these profane, personal goals; a few have posited a basic biological change in the nature of man and there still remain some brainwashing theorists, nearly all psychologists and journalists.

55. ---. "People who Attend Unification Workshops and Do Not Become Moonies." In Religious Movements: Genesis, Exodus and Numbers edited by Rodney Stark. New York: Paragon House, New ERA Books. 1985c: 65-93.

Those who failed to join the Unification Church after attending its workshops (about 90% of the total, which Barker argues shows that "brainwashing," if it can be said to occur at all, is singularly ineffective) were those who were visibly bored by the proceedings; these turned out to be the ones with little or no interest in religion. Those with strong contrary beliefs tended to be highly interested in the workshops.

56. ---. "Religious Movements: Cult and Anti-Cult since Jonestown." Annual Review of Sociology 12, 1986: 329-46.

A review of the sociological study of new religions, of social reaction to them, and of changes in the movements themselves, since the watershed of Jonestown. Barker reports survey data showing that more Americans knew of Jonestown than any other event this century except the dropping of the atom bomb and Pearl Harbor [more than the Kennedy assassinations?] People's views of other movements were widely contaminated by the event. Material deprivation does not enter into conversion into these groups, which are overwhelmingly middle class (exceptions are the People's Temple and Rastafarianism). Instead, joiners feel deprived in a more spiritual and emotional sense. Internal doctrinal, practical and demographic changes within movements remain largely unstudied.

57. ---. "A Short History, but Many Changes: A New Religious Movement." In Gilgil edited by S. Shaked, D. Shulman and D.D. Stroumsa. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1987.

Missionary efforts by the Unification Church had little success until Moon moved to the US and began to hold mass rallies and meet with such establishment figures as Nixon. The movement attracted attention for its theological innovations, its anti-communism, mass weddings, and alleged deceptive recruiting and brainwashing. Accurate information was hard to come by; following Lofland's (1977a: see item 439) study the movement was highly secretive. By the 80's it was inviting sociological study.

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